The familiar picture of world history — democracy as a unique invention of ancient Greece — has become much more complicated. An international team of researchers has shown that forms of collective governance arose independently in different parts of the world.
An analysis of archaeological data and written sources from 31 ancient societies in Asia, Europe and the Americas found elements of collective rule, in particular among the Iroquois Confederacy, in the cities of Teotihuacan and Monte Albán, and in Mohenjo-daro. These systems could last for hundreds and sometimes thousands of years, and they did not depend on influence from Athens or on geography.
The researchers also disproved the hypothesis that large societies inevitably become autocracies. The key factor turned out to be the sources of rulers’ income: if rulers depended on citizens’ taxes, more collective forms of government emerged; if resources came from outside, autocracy strengthened. In addition, autocratic systems more often relied on personal loyalty and the cult of the ruler, while in more collective societies shared rules and citizen participation played an important role.
The patterns identified are relevant today as well. The concentration of resources outside public control is still associated with stronger authoritarian tendencies, while dependence on citizens helps sustain participation and checks and balances. At the same time, democracy is not an accidental historical episode, but a recurring mechanism that emerges under certain conditions.
